The studies involved in this review have shown that e-cigarettes could lead to adverse effects on cardiovascular system through various mechanisms, such as oxidative stress, inflammation, endothelial dysfunction, atherosclerosis, hemodynamic effects, and platelet activity (Fig
Smoking can also impact liver enzymes involved in detoxification, leading to altered metabolic processes and hindering the body's ability to eliminate toxins effectively [1]
In addition, differences in the definition, measurement, and adjustment methods of smoking history across studies not only introduce heterogeneity but may also lead to incomplete control of certain confounding factors
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